HMGB1 and epilepsy: Patients with drug-resistant epilepsy expressed significantly higher levels of total HMGB1 (8.70 ± 0.47 ng/ml) than both healthy controls (1.11 ± 0.07 ng/ml, P < 0.01) and those with well-controlled epilepsy (1.25 ± 0.15 ng/ml, P < 0.01; Figure 5A).