To determine, as we hypothesized, whether distinct DS-induced discrete host immune responses, we used qPCR to measure expression of innate and adaptive genes previously associated with CRS (Th1, Th2, Th17 and Treg cytokines, mucin, and epithelial barrier genes) using RNA extracted in parallel with DNA used to profile microbial communities from sinus brushings of all subjects. Here, MUC5AC is linked to congenital rubella syndrome.