TNF and type 1 diabetes mellitus: Preclinical studies have suggested that proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, play a critical role in the pathogenesis of T1DM owing to their dramatic effects on pancreatic islets, especially insulin-secreting β-cells (Baumann, Salem & Boehm, 2012; Cnop et al., 2005).