TNF and atherosclerosis: Oxidative stress significantly contributes to the development of insulin resistance and imbalance in vascular homeostasis, including endothelial cell dysfunction, atherosclerosis, vascular calcification, and impaired myocardial energetics, stimulating the production of interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) [71,72].