In cerebral ischemia/reperfusion models for stroke injury, HSP70 binds to TLR4, activating MyD88-IRAK-TRAF6 and NF-κB pathways, with downstream induction of TNFα and other cytokines [60, 61], as observed for nPM-LPS responses (Fig. 8). Here, TRAF6 is linked to brain ischemia.