INS and dementia: Accordingly, treatment with intranasal insulin, which results in direct insulin transport from the nasal cavity to the CNS via intraneuronal and extraneuronal pathways (Reger and Craft, 2006), improves cognition in patients with (Reger et al., 2008; Craft et al., 2012) and without (Hallschmid et al., 2007, 2008) dementia.