The combination of (1) reduced expression of activating receptors and increased inhibitory receptors (e.g., TIM-3), (2) reduced ADCC, (3) reduced secretion of TNF-α and IFN-γ, and (4) development of pro-cancer features such as persistent activation, spontaneous degranulation, and production of VEGF suggests that NK cells may directly be associated with the increased cancer risk in the setting of ART-treated HIV infection. Here, TNF is linked to cancer.