VCAM1 and endothelial dysfunction: Different non-invasive methods for evaluation of endothelial dysfunction in AF have been used, including measurement of circulating endothelium related biomarkers, like von Willebrand factor (vWF) and soluble endothelial cell adhesion molecules (i.e intercellular adhesion molecule-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and E-selectin).