IL1B and infection: Our study is also in contrast to an early study which suggested that 1,25(OH)2D3 inhibits the proliferation of blood lymphocytes and IL-1 production32, however, recent studies, in line with our data, have found that vitamin D generally boosts infection-stimulated cytokine and chemokine responses; including enhanced IL-1β expression in macrophages18, enhanced macrophage survival and reduced mycobacterial burden by stimulating the anti-mycobacterial capacity of co-cultured lung epithelial cells.