ACE and chronic kidney disease: Thus, in light of the high CV morbidity in CKD patients, as well as the failure of traditional therapeutic concepts (e.g., cholesterol-lowering or angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy) and of non-traditional approaches (e.g., normalization of hemoglobin levels, increasing dialysis dose, and use of high-flux dialyzer), the option of pharmacological lowering of high circulating FGF-23 levels is expected to be a promising therapeutic pathway for reducing CVD in CKD and ESRD.