VDR and cancer: Moreover, polymorphisms in the VDR gene have been linked to cancer risk, including prostate (Taylor et al, 1996), breast (Lowe et al, 2005), skin and bowel (Ingles et al, 2001; Xu et al, 2014; Serrano et al, 2016), and VDR expression has been linked to survival in prostate and breast cancer (Berger et al, 1991; Hendrickson et al, 2011; Ditsch et al, 2012).