The upstream regulator analysis of the genes whose expression was altered by astaxanthin or vitamin E indicated that astaxanthin, but not vitamin E, was predicted to inhibit the actions of the ligand-dependent unclear receptors PPARδ (PPARD), PPARα (PPARA), and retinoid X receptor (RXR) α (RXRA) in the livers of mice with diet-induced NASH (Table 2 and Table 3). Here, PPARD is linked to metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis.