TNF and Chagas disease: It was noteworthy that Chagas disease hosts develop, upon homologous T. cruzi antigen recall in vitro, a prominent pro-inflammatory response involving IFN-γ (NK-cells and T-cells) together with TNF (monocytes, NK-cells, T-cells and B-cells) modulated by IL-10 from monocytes and B-cells (Fig 4A).