Associations between serum vitamin D and genes encoding components of TGF-beta/myostatin signalling pathways were also seen with upregulation of SMAD3, SMAD4, ACVR2A and downregulation of SMAD7. This is consistent with previous data demonstrating modulation of SMADs by vitamin D, resulting in anti-proliferative effects and resolution of the rodent model of multiple sclerosis [33]. Here, SMAD3 is linked to multiple sclerosis.