TNF and cerebral malaria: Previous studies have shown that when proinflammatory cytokines (produced by a variety of cells, including Th1 cells and macrophages) such as TNF-α (16), IFN-γ, IL-6, and IL-1 (17, 18) are produced in an unregulated manner, they contribute to the pathogenesis of cerebral malaria (19) and to disease severity and death (20).