TNF and malaria: TNF-α levels during acute disease were higher in all types of clinical malaria than in controls (Fig. 1B), with significant (P = 0.0313 for UCM, P = 0.0060 for SMA, and P = 0.0391 for CM) differences observed between CM patients (median, 3.76 pg/ml) and controls (median, 1.41 pg/ml) and between SMA patients (median, 2.95 pg/ml) and controls.