TNF and obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency: Indeed, pro-inflammatory adipokines, which are upregulated in obesity, such as IL-1α, IL-1β, and TNF-α have been described as potent PAR2 inducers in the vasculature (Nystedt et al., 1996; Hamilton et al., 2001; Ritchie et al., 2007).