CSF2 and astrocytoma (excluding glioblastoma): Substance P activates the key inflammatory regulator NF-κB in human astrocytoma cells (Lieb et al., 1997), and can elicit the production of a number of inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, IL-8 and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and reactive oxygen intermediates by these cells and primary human embryonic and spinal astrocytes (Lieb et al., 1997; Palma et al., 1997; Palma and Manzini, 1998).