TNF and infection: In different stages of infection, the parasite induces the production of several cytokines, such as interferon (IFN)-γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL-)1, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12 IL-17, IL-23 and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), which are variably expressed by microglia cells, astrocytes and infiltrating CD4+ and CD8+ T cells [47].