Pre-clinical models of alcohol dependence demonstrate microglial activation and expression of inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) both in the brain and peripheral blood during alcohol withdrawal.19, 20 These changes are associated with neuronal death and learning deficits.19 There is evidence that similar processes may occur in humans. This evidence concerns the gene TNF and alcohol dependence.