TGFB1 and cancer: Although TGF-β has been considered to play dual roles in human cancer progression depending on the cellular context and the tumor stage, i.e., tumorigenic and tumor-suppressive roles [9], a recent study reported that TGF-β signaling may contribute to the bony invasion of oral cancer by modulating receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand (RANKL), tumor necrosis factor-α, and connective tissue growth factor expression in oral cancer cells [10].