TNF and infection: Indeed, a gene expression profile study of purified primary erythroid cultures incubated with either TNF or hemozoin showed recently that both stimuli were able to inhibit erythroid development, with activation of largely distinct transcriptional programs: hemozoin up-regulated genes related to regulation of transcription, cellular stress response and apoptosis, and the majority of genes up-regulated by TNF was involved in innate and adaptive immune responses to infection (Lamikanra et al., 2015).