TNF and infection: Infection by P. chabaudi, P. yoelii, and P. berghei was shown to inhibit development of erythroid precursors induced by erythropoietin in mice (Thawani et al., 2014), an effect also achieved by in vitro incubation of human erythroid cells with hemozoin or proinflamatory cytokines such as TNF and IFN-γ, whose levels are augmented during malaria (Means and Krantz, 1991; Casals-Pascual et al., 2006; Awandare et al., 2011).