An attempt to increase TGFβ signalling may be indicative of a protective response in these cells; increasing TGFβ1 in cellular growth media was found to reduce the activity of caspases 3 and 7 [11], and increased expression of TGFβ1 has been associated with neuroprotection, astrogliosis and alleviation of neuroinflammation [31], [32], whereas its knockdown promoted neuronal loss in rats following traumatic brain injury [32]. Here, TGFB1 is linked to brain injury.