TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: Inflammatory bowel disease was induced by the over-expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-12) and/or the down-regulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines in the polarization of Th1/Th2 cells in colonic mucosa (Kallies et al., 2006; Martins et al., 2006).