It will thus be interesting to examine in more details, the actin cytoskeleton dynamics of host cells upon infection with bacteria expressing catalytically inactive ExoY or ExoY-like proteins alone or together with other toxins affecting actin cytoskeleton regulation (ExoS, ExoT from P. aeruginosa, actin cross-linking (ACD) or Rho-GTPase inactivation domain (RID) from various MARTX toxins of the Vibrio genus16). Here, RHO is linked to infection.