EPO and acute kidney injury: Although AKI is characterized by death of the tubular epithelium and activation and expansion of the tubulointerstitium with inflammatory cells, while extensive apoptosis and necrosis may exist, there is clear evidence that administration of EPO at or near the time of injury significantly improves recovery acutely via inhibition of apoptosis, stimulation of antioxidant and angiogenic action, and suppression of proinflammatory cytokine mediators [31–34].