TNF and bacterial infectious disease: Pathological epithelial cell shedding is associated with several disease states including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), bacterial infections such as Salmonella typhimurium, Cryptosporidium parvum and Bacteroides fragilis; exposure to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), indomethacin and Toll-like receptor 3 agonists; ischemia and ischemia-reperfusion injury, burn injury, trauma, increased lymphatic pressure; and in cocaine- or atropine-induced villus contraction7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18.