TNF and endothelial dysfunction: Chronic NF-κB activation leads to the overexpression of inflammation-related genes such as cellular adhesion molecules (e.g., intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), monocyte chemo-attractant protein-1 (MCP-1), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β)), thus conferring an inflammatory phenotype that contributes to endothelial dysfunction.