Vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 levels did not appear different across brain regions overall (Fig. 6c) but showed multiple effects among the nonepileptic cases (Table 4, epilepsy effect p < 0.0001, brain region effect p < 0.0001, epilepsy × brain region interaction p < 0.0001). This evidence concerns the gene VCAM1 and epilepsy.