TNF and colitis: RNA was extracted from colonic tissue to detect cytokine expression, and expression of proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-6, IL-23, and IL-1β, was found to be markedly decreased after blockade of PLD2 in DSS-induced colitis, whereas anti-inflammatory cytokine (e.g., IL-10) was significantly increased after inhibition of PLD2 (Figures 6(a)–6(f)).