VCAM1 and atherosclerosis: Incretin drugs, including DPP-4 inhibitors, have been reported to exert a protective effect against atherosclerosis by mediation of several pathways; upregulation of the activity and protein expression of endothelial NO synthase; prevention of reactive oxygen species-induced cell senescence in endothelial cell lines [25, 26]; attenuation of TNF-α mediated induction of PAI-1 expression [27]; intracellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 [28]; inhibition of monocyte adhesion [29] and proliferation of smooth muscle cells [30].