IL4 and infection: We noted that the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-12, IL-1β and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) were markedly induced upon infection whilst IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) were barely detectable (Figure 8A).