TNF and Obesity: Activation of CaSR in human adipose cells, as well as WAT explants, elevates the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin 6 (IL6), chemokine C-C motif ligand 2 (CCL2), interleukin 1β (IL1β), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα; Cifuentes et al., 2012), which have been linked with adipose dysfunction and the cardiovascular and metabolic consequences of obesity.