TNF and malnutrition: Malnutrition is a common cause of secondary immune deficiency, and previous studies characterizing cytokine changes showed reductions in IL2 (17, 18, 38) and IFNγ (18, 19) with inconsistent reductions in IL1 (38–40) and increases in IL10 (15, 17, 38) and TNF-α (17, 39).