Nonetheless, increased expression of several pro-angiogenic growth factors have been found in human CCM lesions, including VEGF, PDGF, and TGF-β (Abe et al., 2009, Jung et al., 2003, Maiuri et al., 2006, Yildirim et al., 2010), and increased VEGF expression has also been measured in KRIT1 deficient animals (Corr et al., 2012). This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and cerebral cavernous malformation.