TNF and atherosclerosis: The hemodynamic changes induced by hypertension lead to endothelial dysfunction, with increased serum levels of inflammation factors such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and expression of adhesion molecules including intercellular adhesion molecules-1 (ICAM-1) further enhancing monocyte/macrophage migration into the vascular wall and promoting atherosclerosis and inflammation, which is further aggravated by other risk factors such as prediabetes (Chapman and Sposito, 2008).