TLR4 and serum lipopolysaccharide activity: 2002, Brown et al. 2007). Furthermore, urinary tract epithelial cells also released CXCL2 via TLR4 signalling and thus recruited leucocytes to the infected urinary tract (Patole et al. 2005). In addition to these inflammatory mediators, adhesion molecules are upregulated as a result of TLR4 activation. ICAM‐1 expression was increased on tubular epithelial cells and glomerular endothelial cells in murine endotoxemia (Cunningham et al. 2004).