TNF and bacterial infectious disease: Here, we investigated the induction of cytokines and chemokines by meningitic E. coli, and found that bacterial infection could time-dependently induce the upregulation of multiple cytokines (e.g. IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α) and chemokines (e.g. MCP-1, MIP-2, and GRO-α) (Figure 6A), while this induction was much lower in response to HB101 (Supplementary Figure S2).