Expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) and chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 4 (CXCR4) which play important roles in the crosstalk between AML and stromal cells was also upregulated by R-2HG while interleukin 3 (IL-3) and its receptor (IL-3R) were not changed (Fig. 3b). Here, CXCR4 is linked to acute myeloid leukemia.