MAP1LC3A and neoplasm: Phagocytosis of live or dead cells or pathogens can be facilitated by the LC3-positive compartment.20, 21 In addition, chemical-induced NCA or noncanonical LC3 lipidation has been reported to be positively correlated with human tumor cell death8, 22 and resistance to pathogens.23 It is possible that cells lacking ULK1 or Beclin1 activity, or with a low autophagy-initiating capability might evolve to use NCA as a way to resist pathogen invasion or to survive in adverse environments.