TNF and infection: Infection led to the upregulation of several cytokines and chemokines relative to the level of secretion in a mock-infected sample, with macrophage inhibitory factor (MIF), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), chemokine (C-C) motif ligand 3 (CCL3), chemokine (C-C) motif ligand 5 (CCL5), C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10), interleukin 16 (IL-16), interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and C-X-C motif chemokine 12 (CXCL12) all being upregulated at least 2-fold following infection with all three viruses (Fig. 4A).