TNF and infection: Following Pcc-AS sporozoite inoculation in non-pregnant animals, peripheral blood levels of IL-12, IL-10, IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ and MCP-1 were measured at sequential time-points before (“Naïve”) and during infection (“Active Infection”), prior to pregnancy (“Before Pairing”), at gestational day 18 for all pregnant mouse groups (“Uninfected”, “HIlow”, “HIhigh” and “No HI”) and simultaneously in re-infected non-pregnant control mice (Non Pregnant HI) (Fig 4).