TNF and Cognitive impairment: Proinflammatory cytokine release and astrocyte activation are associated with declined cognitive performance in humans and animals.[5–7] Indeed, proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, can be released by activated astrocytes, triggering neuroinflammation and leading to cognitive dysfunction.[9] High concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines inhibit long-term potentiation and impair memory.[14] Neuroinflammation has been implicated in cognitive impairment; this may provide a viable target to prevent the development of POCD.