TLR4 and infection: 1997; Lemaitre and Hoffmann 2007; Broderick et al. 2009). In contrast, genes regulated by the Toll pathway tend to be activated by Gram‐positive bacteria, like L. lactis, and show peak expression 24 HPI (Lemaitre et al. 1997; Lemaitre and Hoffmann 2007; Broderick et al. 2009). There is evidence that these antimicrobial defenses can even act in the host insect hemolymph for weeks after infection, which is thought mainly to control persistent bacterial infections (Haine et al. 2008).