APP and Alzheimer disease: In line with biophysics, observations using atomic force microscopy and high resolution transmission electron microscopy also showed bilayer surfaces with Aβ-linked disturbances and channel formations in artificial membranes (Green et al., 2004; Quist et al., 2005), as well as in neuronal membranes of both APP transgenic mice (Kokubo et al., 2009) and AD patients (Inoue, 2008).