TNF and malaria: For instance, increased plasma levels of pro-inflammatory tumour necrosis factor (TNF), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) [8, 9], as well as decreased levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-10 and transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) [9–11], are hallmarks of severe malaria.