MAPK8 and Insulin resistance: Second, astaxanthin reduced inflammation and insulin resistance more potently than did vitamin E. Of note, these anti-inflammatory and insulin-sensitizing effects were associated with attenuated MAPK (JNK/p38 MAPK) signaling and NF-κB activation, decreased macrophage/KC and T cell accumulation, and enhanced alternative M2 macrophage activation in the liver.