TGFB1 and atrial fibrillation: In addition, pioglitazone was able to attenuate Ang II-induced electrical and structural remodeling by inhibiting both the TGFβ1/Smad2/3 and the non-Smad TGFβ1/tumor necrosis factor receptor associated factor 6/TGFβ-associated kinase 1 signaling pathways in vitro cellular models [82], which adds further evidence to the benefits of PPARγ agonist for the prevention of AF.