TNF and infection: During the initial stage of infection, intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) bind to and recognize the carbohydrate recognition domain of the Gal/GalNAc lectin via toll-like receptor (TLR)-2/4, which activates NFκB and leads to the production of inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, IFN-γ, and TNF-α (28–30).