VEGFA and neoplasm: Major mechanisms for escape include defective antigen presentation, tumor-induced inhibitory checkpoint pathways against effector T cell activity, infiltrating immunosuppressive immune cells including regulatory T cells (Treg) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and secretion of immunosuppressive cytokines (transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), IL-6, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)) [7, 18, 19].