Keswani et al. (2012) and Soyka et al. (2012) have published two different studies regarding the expression of IL-32 in primary nasal epithelial cells by inflammatory cytokines, namely, TNF-α, IFN-γ, and dsRNA (a TLR3 ligand) which stimulated the upregulation of IL-32 mRNA during CRS. Here, TNF is linked to congenital rubella syndrome.